AI and Narratives
Imagining Intelligent Machines
Ai Narratives And The Question Of Embodiment
Narratives can be very important when it comes to shaping the public perception and reception of technological advancements. Moreover, specific technologies, such as robots and computers, are closely tied to the narratives and discussions we construct about them. Both as individuals and as societies, our reactions to technologies, or even the conceptualization of these technologies, are influenced by the meanings we assign to them.
Generally, the term narratives refer to a combination of written and visual elements, events, and cultural objects that collectively convey a story. Regardless of whether they are fictional or based on real events, narratives play a crucial role in impacting individuals and groups, shaping human behavior, cognition, and social outcomes. Narratives also have the inherent capability to circulate and reinforce themselves through repetitive patterns. They possess the ability to either enhance or constrain the possibilities for human well-being. Investigating narratives is crucial for gaining a deeper comprehension of their operations and for critically engaging with them.
When it comes to narratives on technology, the hopes and fears associated with technological advancements over centuries have manifested in the form of both fiction and non-fiction. Among these narratives, a few dominant ones, concerned with specific characteristics of technology, have exerted significant influences. As specific portrayals of technology, these narratives function as stories that present individuals and societies, with a form of a 'technological myth.'
When we consider the nature of narratives related to technology, the Internet stands out as the most relevant example in recent times. During the initial decade of its widespread adoption, two competing narratives, each influential in its own way, emphasized both optimistic and critical outcomes for social relationships, trust, work, psychological well-being, and democracy. Going further back, a similar pattern was observed in narratives related to telephone and television upon their initial introduction.
Critical narratives concerning AI are undergoing the same process. Although social scientists have primarily observed its impact on work and democracy, broader social, economic, and political consequences of AI are being observed by many. As a result, narratives that are excessively optimistic or pessimistic may get pushed to their extremes, potentially influencing the future of AI.
The current enthusiasm regarding AI is centered strongly around the prediction and projection of the future, with a focus on claims related to potential uses and hypothetical performances. The high-expectation narratives are being reinforced, particularly those revolving around an AI race between nations or the potential development of a superhuman Artificial General Intelligence. The narratives being promoted play a role in organizing how AI is developed, funded, and utilized.
Narratives and myths also function as organizing visions ingrained in specific cultural and institutional contexts. Additionally, they play a performative role, potentially obscuring the actual potentialities of technological advancements.
A deeper look into the aspects of AI narratives in Western societies during the 20th and 21st centuries can reveal the aspirations and corresponding fears associated with AI. These opposing narratives of hopes and fears play a crucial role in dissecting the complex domain shaped by both fictional and non-fictional works on AI. Ambitions such as immortality, convenience, satisfaction, and supremacy stand in stark contrast to fears of inhumanity, alienation, and revolt. The former inherently brings about positive transformation, while the latter induces internal instability. Similar to any technological advancement, the primary expectation is to enhance and prolong life, resisting human decline through an engineered and wired body.
These dichotomies of hopes and fears also reveal the contrast between the age-old human aspiration for freedom from work, to the latest, concrete fear of becoming useless in the face of automation and AI-enhanced industry and services.
While AI systems have the potential to fulfill human needs, the introduction of technology as a mediator brings about a sense of alienation in both social and economic domains. The hope for supremacy and the fear of uprising also broadens the concept of power, a sought-after entity throughout human history, suggesting that AI serves as a tool for gaining and maintaining power, whether over other nations or specific groups or as an agent capable of assuming control over humans.
Imagining Intelligent Machines
Even though discussions about intelligent machines are currently widespread, it is not a new concept. The earliest recorded account resembling artificial intelligence can be traced back to Homer's Iliad, written around the eighth century BCE. Crafted by Hephaestus, the god of smithing, these machines were described as "golden attendants" that appeared lifelike. Gifted with intelligence, a voice, and vitality, they served faithfully as companions to their disabled creator. Hephaestus was also credited in other myths with creating technological marvels like Talos, a formidable bronze automaton safeguarding the shores of Crete and acting as an early form of a deadly robot.
As time progressed, machines mimicking human characteristics became more advanced and gained popularity. The book "Automata," by Hero of Alexandria of first-century CE details the construction of entirely mechanical puppets for theatrical performances, among other marvels intended to convince temple-goers that they were witnessing divine acts. However, the influence of Greece waned and the knowledge and skills associated with automaton creation were lost, along with the optimism linked to them. It wasn't until the late 13th century that the mechanical arts were rediscovered, primarily in the Byzantine and Islamic regimes. Western Europeans, unfamiliar with these advancements, viewed them with a mix of wonder and suspicion due to their foreign origins.
When intelligent machines were envisioned in the Christian context influenced by Latin traditions, they initially took the form of loyal servants, resembling copper knights tasked with guarding hidden entrances. However, the anxieties prevalent in contemporary narratives, exploring themes of inhumanity, alienation, and rebellion, began to surface.
Historical figures like Roger Bacon and Robert Grosseteste were rumored to have crafted a bronze head capable of answering any question, perhaps a precursor to Siri. Unfortunately, these tales concluded on a negative note, featuring mishaps and the demise of the oracle, often at the hands of a frightened layperson. The underlying moral suggests that creating artificial intelligence is an act of overambitious daring, similar to Promethean hubris, implying that such divine power should remain beyond the grasp of humans.
The association with hubris continues to linger in the AI project, but as technology advances, additional themes have gained prominence. The latter part of the seventeenth century to the early nineteenth century witnessed the pinnacle of automata in Europe. During this era, skilled artisans crafted remarkable marvels that imitated life. Jacques de Vaucanson's renowned flute player is such an example.
While these creations lacked true intelligence and autonomy, they hinted at the possibility of lifelike androids becoming achievable. Alongside this prospect arose new concerns related to crossing boundaries and deception. For instance, in E.T.A. Hofmann's 1816 short story "The Sandman,", the protagonist Nathanael becomes enchanted by the beauty of a maiden named Olimpia. Upon discovering that she is an automaton after prolonged courtship, he descends into madness and ultimately commits suicide.
Though centered on a living organism rather than a mechanical entity, Mary Shelley's Frankenstein (1818) serves as the archetypal tale of humanity's unnatural creations turning against their creators. Coined by Isaac Asimov, the "Frankenstein complex" has become a recurring theme in AI fiction during the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. In Karel Čapek's 1920 work R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots), which introduced the term 'robot,' the created beings rebel against their masters, resulting in their destruction. This narrative of rebellion has been revisited in various forms, including prominent depictions of intelligent machines in iconic works like the Terminator film series and, more recently, the Westworld TV series.
The highest concentration of imaginative stories on artificial intelligence, both in written and visual forms emerged after the term was coined in 1955. These narratives serve as a fertile ground for the creative exploration of AI across various themes. Moreover, they include examinations of AI in terms of influence, everlasting life, parenting, awareness, ethical alignment, digital networks, decentralized intelligence, sexuality, warfare, autonomous weaponry, subjugation, and governance. Many of these stories paint dystopian scenarios, while others present utopian ideals, with some narratives combining elements of both.
Ai Narratives And The Question Of Embodiment
The historical account of AI discussed so far illustrates a tendency within fictional narratives to depict intelligent machines as humanoids. The act of attributing human-like characteristics to artificial intelligence within the public's imagination can be explained through various factors. Firstly, the prevalent belief, particularly in Western cultures, that humans stand as the most intelligent beings establishes a tendency to regard the human form as the standard for intelligent entities. As a result, when individuals envision other intelligent beings, these mental constructs often adopt a humanoid shape. This pattern can also be observed in depictions of gods, angels, demons, and intelligent machines alike.
Secondly, these machines are frequently conceptualized as performing tasks similar to human labor. For instance, the golden attendants created by Hephaestus take on responsibilities typically carried out by human servants, while C3PO from Star Wars assumes the role of a human translator and diplomat. It is, therefore, logical that these machines are portrayed as metallic versions of the people they aim to emulate.
Thirdly, visual storytelling, particularly through mediums like film and television, necessitates the presence of bodies, and storytelling as a whole tends to favor human actors portraying human narratives. To seamlessly incorporate intelligent machines into such narratives, the simplest approach is to endow them with a human form. This choice allows viewers to easily relate to the robotic protagonists in TV series like Westworld since they are, in reality, human actors conveying human emotions within familiar plots of escape and self-discovery.
One result of attributing human characteristics to artificial intelligence is the frequent assignment of gender roles. AI entities often possess distinct physical features associated with either men or women, rather than displaying neutral characteristics. This gendering extends to the point of hyper-sexualization, with some AI entities exhibiting exaggeratedly muscular male traits, like the T-800 Terminator, or adhering to conventional standards of female beauty, as seen with Ava in Ex Machina.
Despite this inclination toward anthropomorphism, there exists a noteworthy subset of narratives that depict artificial intelligence in non-physical forms. In E.M. Forster's 1928 short story "The Machine Stops," humanity relies on a comprehensive, decentralized AI system that is worshipped until its failure. Robert Heinlein's 1966 novel "The Moon is a Harsh Mistress" features an AI residing in a computer mainframe, capable of embodying various personalities, both male and female. Iain M. Banks' Culture novels offer a prolonged fictional exploration of societal governance by benevolent AI entities known as the Minds.
While fictional stories portray robots as having a human-like appearance, the field of robotics, particularly influenced by cybernetics research in the 1950s, has drawn inspiration from the capabilities of non-human creatures. This influence is evident in creations like the tortoises Elmer and Elsie, designed by William Grey Walter in 1948, and extends to contemporary robotic sensors inspired by animal whiskers. Ted Chiang's 2010 novella, "The Lifecycle of Software Objects," delves into the complex exploration of establishing connections with artificial intelligence. In this narrative, the AI's virtual representation, as well as its occasional robotic form, is modeled after animals rather than humans.
Common portrayals of artificial intelligence in the English-speaking Western world tend to lean towards either excessively optimistic predictions about its potential or overly dramatic pessimism. The high expectations for AI may arise from the perception that it functions as a supreme technology, enhancing the cognitive abilities that humans have utilized in their various accomplishments. For instance, in 2014, prominent scientists such as Stephen Hawking, Stuart Russell, Max Tegmark, and Frank Wilczek asserted that the potential advantages are vast, envisioning that the augmentation of human intelligence through AI tools could lead to unpredictable achievements, potentially including the elimination of war, disease, and poverty. They went so far as to state that the successful creation of AI would mark the most significant event in human history.
Optimistic visions, found in both fictional and factual accounts, envision AI's potential to conquer ageing and illness, granting humans significantly prolonged lives. Furthermore, AI is envisioned as liberating individuals from the drudgery of work, fulfilling diverse desires ranging from entertainment to companionship, and contributing to robust defense and security mechanisms. On the contrary, the pessimistic concerns associated with AI reflect the dark sides of these aspirations. These fears include the notion that AI could lead to the erosion of human qualities, render humans obsolete, foster social alienation, or subject humanity to enslavement or destruction.
Narratives of all types play a crucial role in advancing science and shaping people's interactions with emerging knowledge and applications. Whether fictional or factual, they wield observable influences in the real world. Insights gathered from historical instances involving disruptive technologies and public discourse infused with scientific elements, such as genetic modification, nuclear energy, and climate change, provide insights into how narratives can impact the trajectory and acceptance of AI technologies.
Moreover, AI narratives have the potential to serve as a valuable resource, offering inspiration to individuals in concerned fields and across various sectors—be they in civil, public, or private domains. These narratives can effectively bring forth alternative scenarios, fostering discussions around them. However, it's crucial to recognize that they also possess the capacity to generate misleading expectations and perspectives that prove challenging to rectify. Particularly for those not intimately involved in the disciplines of science and technology, these stories can influence how potential applications are perceived, impacting confidence levels in the individuals involved in their development, promotion, or opposition.